Childhood stress often evolves into adulthood stress, therefore posing a significant risk factor in the pathway leading to mental disorders (Pirkola et al., 2005). To combat this, it is crucial we educate today's youth with strategies to manage stress. Stress management techniques are shown to be effective for youth, by supporting a range of learning, psychological and behavioural disorders (Zisopoulou & Varvogli, 2023).

Currently, the research surrounding the benefits of mindfulness practice is conducted through adult populations. However, there is a growth in research supporting these claims for adolescents. Furthermore, active application of mindfulness practices for youth can help both neurotypical and neurodivergent youth populations to combat risk factors and improve overall well-being.

What is mindfulness?

Mindfulness is a form of consciousness that can be explained through intentionally focusing attention to the present moment. This practice focuses on creating a peaceful moment in everyday life, with the aim to reduce or bring awareness back into ‘mindless’ moments (Brown & Ryan, 2003). By engaging in mindfulness, we learn to attribute thought and awareness to gain a clearer view on thoughts and emotions that impact our health and lives. It also acts as an excellent barrier to any stress or unpleasant feelings. Mindfulness has gained significant attention across the globe in the past few decades and has become an extremely useful tool for many people. Mindfulness skills allow us to examine how we are being held back, understand where we are applying inappropriate attention to negative feelings or emotions, and allow for the rebalance of mind and body, overall significantly enhancing our mental well-being. As such, mindfulness is also a particularly useful skill in combating stress and associative negative emotions.

History of meditation and mindfulness

The core components of mindfulness extend from a number of ancient sources which have grown and adapted into a range of ongoing traditional and modern practices. Historically Buddhist principles are associated with meditation and mindfulness. The foundations of mindfulness in Buddhism aim to enhance present awareness in the form of a spiritual goal. The key traditional Buddhist concept behind mindfulness is the Pāli term sati, which translates “to remember” (Ji, 2023). The concept of mindfulness in Buddhism has now extended into modern practice with altered practices and aims. Traditional Buddhist meditation focuses on developing spiritual insight into the three marks of existence which include impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and non-self (anattā) in the aim of liberation from suffering (nibbāna) (Ji, 2023; Bodhi, 2011).

The history of mindfulness has evolved from a range of traditional practices, with variations of mindfulness being displayed in a range of religions and cultures. For example, mindfulness-like practices can be seen in Christianity. For example, present-moment awareness and stillness can be attributed to prayer, which invites practisers to observe thoughts without judgement and align with their divine presence (Timbers & Hollenberger, 2022). Although this differs from meditation in Buddhism, the key components align with mindfulness, explaining how the concept of mindfulness is fluid and adaptive within its history and evolution.

The experience of mindfulness within a range of historical settings explains how the version of mindfulness we have today has evolved from various foundations. The key principles of basic mindfulness, although originated through traditional practice, can be found in a range of settings. Mindfulness then can be sourced in traditional settings, but is also present in everyday life. If the key components of mindfulness include attentiveness to the present moment, non-judgement and awareness, the practice of mindfulness can be found in everyday human life across all religions and cultures. Based on research by Thompson (2005), everyday mindfulness parallels the components of traditional meditation. Present-day moments such as mindfully eating a meal, taking a silent walk or reflection, share the principles of mindfulness found in traditional meditation. Therefore, the history of mindfulness can be explained in a formal context, but also extends across a range of religions, cultures and settings, explaining how it has been freely adapted within Western psychology.

In modern-day scientific perspectives, mindfulness practices are used to enhance one’s lived experiences by creating an open, curious and non-judgemental mindset. This creates engagement in 'mindful’ activity rather than ‘mindless’ activity (as distinct from a “mindless” mental state, as mentioned previously). This can be used in a range of situations from appreciating the flowers that have freshly bloomed, to taking active time to sit in silence, associated with Buddhist or similar meditation. Any situation that involves actively attempting to be present and at peace within oneself can be attributed to a form of mindfulness.

The benefits of mindfulness?

Certain scientific theories based around evolutionary psychology, state that all emotions help communicate essential survival tools through their impact on behaviour and decision-making (Arch & Landy, 2015). However, due to the adaptation of humankind to a modern world, these survival tools can be counterproductive. As a result, this can cause unhelpful mental and physical reactions to stimuli.

Emotion regulation

One of the benefits of mindfulness is to regulate emotion, allowing a more helpful, regulated response to stimuli over a reactive response. By creating a habit in this regulated response, we are able to have better control over our behaviour, creating a mindful, or objectively appropriate response, over an immediate and innate reaction. Although the research surrounding meditation is still developing, the current evidence base suggests that mindfulness practices can lead to a more positive life experience, reduced stress and anxiety, better sleep quality, increased self-esteem and a greater sense of happiness and well-being. As well as this, mindfulness has been shown to have physical benefits, even combatting physical disease and chronic pain (Merkes, 2010).

Mindfulness-based interventions

Due to the benefits that have emerged from the use of mindfulness, a range of interventions based on forms of mindfulness have developed rapidly over the past years. These are characterised as mindfulness-based interventions (MBI). The use of MBIs is rapidly increasing and helps expand the empirical evidence base for them (Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand, 2011).

Research has shown that beyond mental well-being benefits, MBI’s have positive effects on mental health through several biological pathways. Based on results from Creswell, Lindsay, and Creswell (2019), mindfulness impacts activity in the section of the brain that processes fear (amygdala), as well as enhancing function in the prefrontal cortex, which supports emotion regulation. Hölzel et al. (2011) concluded that after an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program (MBSR) participants showed higher levels of brain activity in several regions. The hippocampus (associated with emotion regulation) increased notably as well as in areas associated with self-awareness and compassion (posterior cingulate cortex, temporo-parietal junction, and cerebellum).

Mindfulness has therefore become a scientifically supported prevalent positive technique that can be applied to a range of populations. In recent years, this research has expanded to neurodiverse populations. For example, MBI treatment has expanded to help reduce symptoms such as cognitive, social and emotional difficulties of individuals affected by autism spectrum disorder.

Mindfulness applications for youth

The current research displays positive effects for a range of populations, and as this research expands it remains consistent in adolescent research. Although the majority of studies have been conducted in adult populations, growing research expands on the positive mindfulness effects for youth. To validate adolescent consistency with these results, Brown, Loverich, West, and Biegel (2011) conducted research using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale-Adolescent (MAAS-A). Results validated the scale, and participants who participated in the mindfulness-based stress reduction program (MBSR) had an increase in mindfulness, which linked to the improvement in a range of mental health outcomes. The adoption of this research indicates its success in youth applications as research continues to grow.

Studies indicate that 1 in 5 children suffer from a mental health disorder that impairs their daily life, with anxiety and mood disorders being the most commonly displayed. The positive effects of mindfulness could be much better utilised to combat these problems in youth populations. Results show that mindfulness for youth can improve symptoms such as stress, depression and anxiety traits, self-esteem issues and sleep quality (Biegel, Shapiro, Brown, & Schubert, 2009). This study validates that the application of mindfulness for youth could create a positive effect in minimising mental health symptoms currently prevalent in the population. Creating protective factors for children suffering from these mental symptoms is vital, as Targum and Nemeroff (2019) discuss how early life stress can significantly increase the risk of disrupted neurodevelopment leading to social, emotional and cognitive struggles, which can further lead to psychiatric disorders in adulthood, including major depression.

Neurodivergent application

Expanding the research, mindfulness practice has been utilised in neurodivergent populations. Neurodivergent children can experience challenges in a range of environments including education, social and home life. By prioritising mindfulness from a young age, neurodivergent children can create positive coping mechanisms to combat typical struggles from a range of clinical disorders. Simione, Frolli, Sciattella, and Chiarella (2024) created a systematic review of 37 studies to evaluate the mindfulness-based interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The results found that MBIs can reduce distress, whilst improving behaviour and social skills. Similarly, MBIs have been shown to significantly reduce ADHD symptoms and improve self-regulation in children (Lee, Chen, & Lin, 2022).

Gillberg (2010) emphasizes that early intervention is critical for neurodivergent children, as challenges often emerge across multiple domains and can become more severe without support. Gillberg’s ESSENCE framework highlights how neurodivergent children often have overlapping symptoms that create a range of risk factors. Recognising and establishing early intervention to support these children reduces the risk of long-term effects including mental illness. This research review indicates the support mindfulness can create for both neurotypical and neurodivergent youth populations.

Mindfulness programmes for youth

The current increase of research around mindfulness attention for youth has established a range of programmes in a series of contexts to implement forms of mindfulness. Mindfulness research and adaptation can be viewed across specific programmes for both neurotypical and neurodivergent youth populations. Programs such as InnerKids have expanded this research into an educational setting. The current research opens the opportunity of positive mindfulness research to be a growing tool that can be further adapted in the future.

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction is a mindfulness program that takes place over an 8-week period in a classroom setting. It engages a range of mindfulness practices to educate youth on the practical adaptations of mindfulness for everyday life. This includes implementing Buddhist principles through meditation techniques including breathing and expanded object attention, body awareness through ‘body scans’, yoga and stretching, and journaling. The research has now become a framework for evolving mindfulness initiatives, through its appeal in both research and public funding. The MBSR framework can be found in hundreds of clinics across five continents (Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand, 2011). This study validated the use of the MAAS-A scale and concluded a positive effect on both healthy and clinical adolescent populations.

InnerKids

InnerKids is the programme that helps develop mindfulness skills for youth through games and activities. This programme focuses on the ‘ABC’ framework, fostering attention, balance and compassion over time to help children quiet their minds, focus, reframe mentality and create skills to nurture meaningful relationships. This is achieved through activity-based mindfulness approaches with mindfulness and meditation themes that can be applied in everyday life (Susan Kaiser Greenland, n.d.). This process is characterised through mindfulness awareness practices (MAP) and was evaluated through children ages 7-9. Results of the study indicated that children in the MAPs group who showed lower regulation had greater improvement in executive function compared to the control group. These preliminary findings showed a positive change in behavioural regulation, metacognition and overall control (Garon, Bryson, & Smith, 2008; McCloskey, Perkins, & Van Diviner, 2008; Welsh & Pennington, 1988; all cited in Flook et al., 2010).

These verified improvements were majorly useful in the positive mindfulness experience for youth, as low executive function can be associated with problems including poor academic functioning. This has been associated with behavioural disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorders (Flook et al., 2010). The results of this study indicate a positive effect on executive function through MAPS in both neurodivergent and neurotypical children.

Mindfulness-based Intervention modified for children with ASD

White and McIntyre (2020) conducted a study that adapted MBI to children with ASD. This study included a range of mindfulness techniques including breath work, body scans and guided reflections modified for children with ASD. This was established in elementary schools with the work of trained facilitators familiar with neurodiversity and consisted of twice-weekly, 30-minute sessions over 8 weeks. Teachers and participants noticed improvements in emotional regulation, attention and general behaviour. The study results specifically showed an improvement in anxiety levels and increased feelings of calm for ASD youth participants. Therefore, this study established significant findings in MBI for stress reduction in neurodivergent students in an educational setting. These results also indicated high involvement from participants and no adverse effects. Therefore this study validates the implementation and adaptation of previous research on the positive effects of mindfulness for neurodivergent youth audiences in an education environment.

Mindful Parenting Program - University of Amsterdam

Dr. Susan Bögels and colleagues at the University of Amsterdam review the concept of mindful parenting programs with an aim to improve mindful parenting skills and reduce stress for parents with children with ADHD, ASD, anxiety and other behavioural problems (Bögels, Lehtonen, & Restifo, 2010). This consists of 8 weekly sessions that include practices like mindful breathing, body scans and parent-specific meditations. This programme extends the research of mediation by applying it into parenting style in the aim to treat and prevent mental health disorders in children, address parenting challenges and be a protective factor against intergenerational transmission of mental health problems.

This study shows the positive effects of mindfulness across the sectors of a child's life. The applications of these mindful practices can therefore be a highly positive factor in both the child's development and the parents. Although the research is young in this sector, the theoretical review determines the positive impact of mindfulness can continue to grow into a range of sectors in a child's formative life.

Mindfulness applications through technology

Technology now plays a central role in modern entertainment, education, and socialisation for children. This modern approach has embedded screen time in day to day life. As this growing reliance on technology use continues to expand and grow, it raises important questions about its influence on child developmental domains. Given its widespread use, it is a priority to ensure it enables positive effects on children's developmental growth and wellbeing. Current literature on technology in society has led to mixed reviews on whether it is beneficial or harmful for children's development. However, when implemented correctly, digital platforms offer a unique opportunity and space to deliver accessible and scalable interventions for a wide range of families and communities, making it a key outlet for mindfulness programmes.10

Digital Education

Nurdiantami and Agil (2020) created a systematic review to research the integration of digital technology in early childhood education (ECE) to assess its impact on learning. This study focused on children aged 0-8 and the impact of various forms of technology in educational settings through their analysis of 40 research articles including experimental studies, observational research and qualitative analysis. The study concluded both positive and negative effects in the use of digital education across the research. However, the implementation of digital learning tools resulted in a range of positive effects such as positive language development, mathematical skills, fine motor skills and cognitive skills. As well as this, the study reported an average increase of 20-30% time engagement when using technology-based learning tools.

These results indicated that technology is a beneficial tool in ECE when used in the correct manner. The studies' results highlight how the content of technology that a child consumes impacts whether it is beneficial or harmful. Recommendations from the research include adult guidance, including technology in a balanced manner and ensuring age-appropriate content (Nurdiantami & Agil, 2020). Although technology can be a positive tool, like most tools, excessive use could lead to negative effects. The overuse of screen time has become a common worry for parents as it can lead to adverse effects. Although this is a risk, when used in moderation, technology is a valuable tool for youth. Youvan (2024) highlights that overuse of screen time can lead to social and emotional challenges, such as emotion regulation problems being twice as likely for children who overuse technology (3 hours or more daily). Therefore the study suggests balanced screen time as a positive tool using the “3C model” (Youvan, 2024). This model focuses on Content; being age-appropriate and educational, Context; involving adult-guided interaction and co-viewing, and Child; ensuring the content is catered to the specific child's needs. By following these guidelines, technology creates a range of developmental benefits for the child.

Mindful technology

Therefore the research indicates that by prioritising the manner, context and content of digital implementations for youth, it can be a beneficial tool that creates a positive effect in each child's specific development needs. By using technology for beneficial content, the benefits of screen time can be increased. The negative biases towards screen time for youth is created through the negative impacts of harmful content. Fitzpatrick et al. (2023) emphasize that harmful content such as violent media, can lead to behavioural issues due to externalising behaviours. This should not overshadow the benefits of technology, but rather should emphasise the need to implement beneficial media content for children to increase the positive effects of technology tools. By prioritising content that is beneficial for a child's needs and creating awareness of the content, context and needs of a child's technology usage, digital tools can continue to create positive change in children's development. As well as this, technology is a valuable opportunity for platforms to be widely accessible, which is a benefit that should not be overlooked; continued research and positive development of digital tools is essential to creating safe platforms that allow children to engage with positive and developmentally supportive content.

Thai and Ponciano (2016) provide an example of positive technology usage for youth development. This study included a digital learning platform called ABCmouse learning Academy designed for preschool aged children. The digital platform was studied across two years with over 5,000 participants across multiple classrooms in the United States. The results showed significant improvements in literacy and mathematical skills compared to the control group. The programme had significant benefits, especially for children in low-income homes and those with language gaps. As well as this, teachers reported an increase in engagement within the class environment due to the usage of this programme. This study exemplifies the benefits of digital tools when used in the correct manner. This signifies the benefits of technology for youth, but also highlights the need to continue to grow positive digital programmes for children to continue the benefits possible from digital implementation.

Opportunities, adaptations and recommendations in mindfulness for youth

As a society, we uphold the importance of creating positive environments for our youth. Through education, media, parenting and a range of other outlets, we aim to prioritise positive influence for children's mental and physical health. This belief inherently recognises the importance of social and emotional well-being.

In order to maximise the benefits of this claim, the evidence outlined in this report suggests that mindfulness techniques hold great potential for supporting both neurotypical and neurodivergent youth, as well as their parents. However it would be useful to continue this research to better support these claims, as well as providing further evidence and support to specific mindfulness tools and techniques specifically for both neurotypical and neurodivergent youth populations.

Recommendation 1: Well-researched pilot programmes for neurotypical and neurodivergent children should be established in youth populations to grow the body of research surrounding the effectiveness of mindfulness tools.

By creating a larger body of research, this adaptation of mindfulness can be better implemented into society in order to support these children and their caregivers. At present, there is enough research to claim the positive effects of mindfulness and recommend further implementation of such programmes. However, further verification and pilot studies will help facilitate the knowledge and growth of this concept into everyday life. This will help facilitate the implementation of programmes into communities, allowing mindfulness to become a commonly used tool.

Recommendation 2: If mindfulness is proven to be an effective approach for neurotypical and neurodivergent youth populations, a long-term approach should be implemented, such as the implementation of mindfulness for both children and parents.

By validating the research that states mindfulness can be universally beneficial, programmes and tools for youth mindfulness can be better implemented and supported through a range of outlets including education, media and parenting styles. This can be established through accessible content for children and families such as a digital platform with access and support for both the child and parent’s needs.

Recommendation 3: Mindfulness can be effectively placed in accessible outlets for caregivers to implement the techniques into the youth population’s daily lives.

Following the research and education surrounding the effectiveness of mindfulness in youth populations, programmes can be better implemented in society. Creating access for caregivers to mindfulness tools can establish benefits from the techniques in a simple and effective manner. This can include access to mindfulness programmes that are adaptable for each family and child's needs. This implementation can be grown into an accessible tool across the world in order to spread awareness, education and benefits to fit each individual child's needs.

By following these recommendations, we can effectively close a critical gap in the research and practise, and prioritise the implementation of mindfulness in youth populations. By doing so will enable these interventions to be adapted and implemented in society in a manner that is accessible and useful to cater to the diverse needs of families. This approach will not just allow mindfulness tools to be better understood, but enhance mindfulness accessibility, thus support the increase of positive effects on both mental and physical health in these populations. Moreover, expanding the evidence base will support the development of practices and open opportunities for further collaboration between schools, healthcare systems, and communities. This will create accessible mindfulness practices grounded in scientific evidence that are adaptable to each family and child's needs.

Conclusion

Mindfulness has been recognised as a valuable tool for enhancing mental health and well-being across a range of populations, including children and adolescents. This growing body of research highlights its effectiveness in improving emotional regulation, reducing stress and anxiety, and supporting cognitive and behavioural development. As well as neurotypical youth, research supports mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) as a positive intervention for neurodivergent children in combating challenges aligned with ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, dyslexia and other developmental conditions.

Programmes such as MBSR, InnerKids, and parent-inclusive approaches have demonstrated the benefits of mindfulness, with improvement in emotional regulation, executive functioning and family dynamics. While further empirical research would benefit the research bed for this topic, the existing evidence justifies further implementation of mindfulness in youth environments. Establishing accessible, evidence-based mindfulness programmes early in a child’s life can act as a preventative tool, strengthening mental resilience and supporting healthier developmental outcomes for youth populations. This can be implemented through digital platforms for access to a range of children and families, catering to their specific needs. By following this report's recommendations, youth populations would significantly benefit from regular and consistent access to mindfulness tools and applications as a part of daily life. Ultimately, investing in mindfulness programmes for youth populations will support long-term resilience, physical and mental health and emotional strength for future generations.

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